Vitamin and mineral guide

Definition of Vitamins

Vitamins are organic substances which are necessary for the proper ope- ration of vital functions in humans and animals. They are essential for maintaining the health and productivity of livestock and must be provided in the diet, since the animal body is generally incapable of synthesizing its own vitamins.

A Microbial synthesis of water soluble vitamins and vitamin K occurs to some extent in the large intestine of monogastrics. The animals probably exploit the vitamins by direct absorption as well as by Coprophagi (eating their own manure).

The value is very uncertain, especially where growth promotors and medication are being used. This is also the case when modern intensive production systems are being used, as they do not allow the animals to search their own manure.

Vitamins are classified into two groups: The water soluble vitamins and the fat soluble vitamins.

Fat Soluble Vitamins	Water Soluble Vitamins
* Vitamin A	* Vitamin B-complex
* Vitamin D	* Vitamin C
* Vitamin E
* Vitamin K

 

Only inconsiderable amounts of the water soluble vitamins are being stored in the organism; this necessitates a daily application. Moreover, intoxicity does not occur, unless major overdoses are applicated, due to the fact that an overdose will be excreted through the urine. The fat soluble vitamins, except vitamin K3, are being stored in the organism, and daily application is thus not necessary. Toxification may occur at a considerable overdose of for instance vitamin D3.

Definition of minerals

Minerals are inorganic elements which are present at many places in the organism, several of them being of major importance to the thriftiness and production capacity of the animals. Thus, the minerals are essential to metabolism, among other things because a considerable part of the individual minerals are components in a number of enzymes. Moreover, minerals form an essential part of several processes as for instance reproduction, osteogenesis, oxygen transport etc.

Minerals are classified into macro- and microminerals

Macrominerals mg/kilo	Microminerals g/kilo
* Calcium	* Iron
* Phosphorus	* Iodine
* Sodium	* Copper
* Potassium	* Selenium
* Chloride	* Zinc
* Magnesium	* Manganese
	* Cobalt

 

Different form of minerals

Most of minerals are found in several different forms in nature. These are salts of oxides, sulphates, carbonates and phosphates. Some mineral can also be found as soluble chelates. The availability of minerals in different forms vary considerably and in general one can say that carbonates and sulphates have higher availability than phosphates and oxides have the lowest availability. Oxides, though, are most often the cheapest mineral source.

How vitamins and minerals act 

Each mineral and vitamin has several tasks in the organism. Among other things vitamins and minerals form part of the enzymatic system as so-called co-enzymes. By way of example may be mentioned zinc which is important to the function of almost 200 different enzymes.

Enzymes are complex protein compounds in living cells which cause changes in other substances without being changed themselves. They are organic catalysts.

 Some enzymes act through the construction of substance as for instance construction of meat.

Other enzymes act through decomposition of substance as for instance digestion of feed.

Enzymes are frequently only effective when connected with another agent, a so-called coenzyme, e.g. a mineral or a vitamin. Thus vitamins and mi- nerals are of major importance to thriftiness and production capacity of the animals.

The way vitamins and minerals act may be compared with a working factory:

 

Production Line = Living cells Workers = Enzymes The tools = Vitamins Vitamins missing = No tools: The production stops  

As already mentioned vitamins and minerals influence various parameters in the animal organism. By way of example we have drawn up 8 parameters in the following form and put crosses where each individual vitamin resp. mineral exerts some kind of influence.

The crosses have been put only where each vitamin and mineral has a direct influence on the parameters in question. Moreover, they may also indirectly influence some of the 8 parameters.

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Interaction:

There is an interaction between each individual vitamin and mineral in which one of them can affect absorption and utilization of the other.

The diagram below illustrates various kinds of interaction between mineral agents themselves and between vitamins and minerals.

It is essential to the proper utilization of the optimum production capacity of the animal that vitamins and minerals are being supplied in the right amount and that the balance between them is correct. A surplus of one vitamin or mineral may affect absorption and ex-ploitation of another vitamin or mineral.

If one or more vitamins or minerals are missing in the diet or are supplied in inadequate amounts, many metabolic processes are impaired, leading to productivity problems, retarded growth, reproductive disorders and other diseases.

 

A deficiency of one or more vitamins or minerals may in some cases cause deficiency symptoms - in other cases only unspecific symptoms. By way of example may be mentioned poor appetite and growth, increased fatality, retarded production capacity and reduced production of meat, milk, eggs etc.

Requires a balanced supply of A and B, as a surplus of A inhibits the absorption of B

Requires a balanced supply of C and D

E stimulates the absorption of F 

Moreover, a surplus of vitamins and minerals is no guarantee - on the contrary, it may lead to a deficiency of other vital substances.  

The importance of an increasing application of a specific vitamin/mineral

Application of vitamins/minerals

Thriftiness

Deficiency

Optimum

Surplus/Intoxication 

According to the above curve both a deficit and a surplus of vitamins/minerals influence the growth resp. development of the animal. 

Effect of organically bound trace minerals

It is shown in many papers that organically bound trace minerals have a higher digestibility, or bio availability, than inorganically bound traces. This is especially the case with selenium, where several different types of organically bound selenium is available. Often these are yeast bound products, but also chelates are available.

On top of selenium other trace minerals like manganese, zinc and copper are useful for mainly monogastric animals, meanwhile organically bound selenium is important for all animals. 

Regulation of legal levels of added vitamins and minerals according to EU/EFSA

For the European feed and premix market the level and use of different vitamins and minerals are strictly regulated. The regulation and legislation of different products to be used is stated in EU Regulation nr 1831 of 2003 with amendments and additions to that afterwards. A register of feed additives based on Regulation 1831/2003 is regularly updated.

The regulation of use of vitamins and minerals for animal feeding is of course the base for all Vilofoss production and sales. This has also an effect on premixes produced within the EU for export to foreign markets that is well overseen.

Vitamin A

Occurence

The vitamin only exists in feed of animal origin. In plants, however, there are agents (pro- vitamins) which can be transformed into vitamin A by the animals.   Solubility : Fatsoluble  

Function   

Among other things vitamin A is important to the production and maintainance of skin, mucous membranes, as well as body- and bone tissue.  

Further, the vitamin is necessary to repro- duction, to sight, as well as to the immune system.  

The vitamin also forms part of many enzy- matic reactions.  

Interaction   

A deficit of vitamin E is leading to reduced vitamin A absorption as well as to reduced storage in the liver, due to the fact that vitamin E protects vitamin A against oxidation.

Main deficiency

General symptoms of vitamin A deficiency. symptoms: Night blindness, conversion of tissue, reduced resistance against infectious diseases, anomalous osteogenesis as well as loss of appetite and weight.  

Specific symptoms:  

Pigs: Weak, irregular heat, small litters, weak, monstrous, blind or stillborn piglets.

Poultry: Chickens: Muscular incoordination, uric acid deposits in uterus and kidneys, unthriftiness, night blindness. Hens: Reduced production and lower hatchability.

Occurence

There are only a few natural vitamin D sources, the most important being milk (milk fat), fish oil and hay.
Vitamin D2 is of vegetable origin and exists only in sun radiated plant material.
Vitamin D3 is synthetized in the skin, when animals are exposed to sun radiation.
Vitamin D is added to the feed in the form of vitamin D3.
Vitamin D3 is usually referred to the form of 1,25-OH Cholecalciferol. The form 25-OH Cholecalciferol is now also commercially available as product HyD. This form is 40 times as effective as normal vitamin D3 and need to be considered carefully when used.

Solubility : Fatsoluble

Function

Vitamin D is important to the assimilation and utilization of calcium and phosphorus.
Moreover, it is important to the construct- ion of teeth, to egg-shell formation and to infectious resistance.

Interaction

Vitamin D promotes the intestinal ab-sorption of calcium and phosphorus.

Main deficiency

An adequate supply of vitamin D is essential to the optimum utilization of calcium symptoms and phosphorus.
General symptoms of deficiency in older animals are convulsions as well as decalci- fied and fragile bones.
In young growing animals the symptoms are weak and deformed bones.

Specific symptoms:

Pigs:

Younger animals: Rickets.
Full-grown animals: Convulsions as well as decalcified and fragile bones.

Poultry:

Chickens: Rickets, poor feathering, reduced growth.
Hens: Weak bones, poor eggshell formation, reduced production and lower hatchability.

Main overdose symptoms

A supply of great amounts of vitamin D
May cause a short-time increase of mineralization of the skeleton.
    
Supplied during a considerable period it will cause extraction of calcium from the bones and thus demineralize them.

More specific symptoms:

Pigs and Poultry:

Retarded growth, weak bones caused by decalcifation.
Decalcified blood vessels and kidneys as well as a risk of renal failure.

Occurence

Vitamin E occurs in grain, mill byproducts, forage and oil seed.
Tailings as well as cakes and crushed corn from oil seed are poor vitamin E sources. Natural occurring vitamin E is very unsta- ble.
There are several kinds of natural occuring vitamin E, the biologically most active is Alpha-tocopherol.

Solubility : Fatsoluble

Function

Vitamin E is an antioxidant.
Among other things it protects fatty sub- stances against going rancid by oxidation. It is thus essential to numerous enzymatic systems in the organism, including protein, fat and energy metabolism.
The vitamin is also important to the immune system.

Interaction

Absorption of selenium and vitamin A is dependent on the antioxidative action of vitamin E.
In the organism there exists an interaction between vitamin E and selenium, and to a certain extent selenium may thus comple- ment vitamin E.

Main deficiency

Deficiency of vitamin E may appear as a symptoms variety of functional disorders.

General symptoms are fertility disorders, degeneration of the muscular tissue, poor general condition and reduced resistance against diseases.

Specific symptoms

Pigs:

Irregular heat, return-to-oestrus problems, small litters, reduced milk yield, increased piglet mortality and iron shock.

Porkers:

Sudden death after fights, transportation and various kinds of stress.

Poultry:

Reduced hatchability as well as unhatchable eggs, degeneration of brain tissue, uncoordinated movements, paralysis, plasma exudation under the skin.

Main overdose

Overdose symptoms have not been symptoms demonstrated.

Occurrence

The vitamin is present in several forms, vitamin K3 being the most active.
Vitamin K1 is present in green forage, whe- reas grain and oil cakes contain only small amounts of the vitamin.
Vitamin K2 is generated in the gastrointesti- nal tract by bacteria.
Vitamin K is mainly being supplied to the feed in the form of vitamin K3 (menadione).


Solubility : Fatsoluble

Function

Vitamin K is essential to the coagulation of the blood, but also to a lot of other physiological functions, because of its involvement in the enzymatic systems necessary to normal life processes.

Interaction

A high calcium content in the feed inhibits the absorption of vitamin K.

Main deficiency symptoms

The symptoms of K-avitaminosis are interior resp. exterior haemorrhages even at minor causes.
Especially poultry are sensitive to vitamin K deficiency.

Specific symptoms:

Pigs:

Navel bleeding, bloody urine, sub skin haemorrages and irregular respiration.

Poultry:

Massive interior haemorrrages and death after 1-2 days, bloodspots in eggs, especially brown eggs.

Main overdose symptoms   

Overdose symptoms have not been demonstrated.

Occurrence

Thiamine occurs naturally in all feedstuffs, especially milling by-products, cakes and oil cakes/oil cake meal, milk products and yeast whereas tapioca meal, meat and bone meal and coconut meal contain only small amounts of the vitamin.

Solubility : Watersoluble

Function

Thiamine is important to the carbohydrate metabolism and to the normal function of the gastric tissue.
It is also important to the function of the gastrointestinal tract, i.e. peristaltic, fat absorption and enzyme activity.

Interaction

A high carbohydrate content increases requirements.
Thiamine as well as riboflavin are part of the carbohydrate metabolism.

Main deficiency symptoms

General deficiency symptoms are loss of appetite and growth, depression of feed conversion.

Specific symptoms

Pigs:

Loss of appetite, vomiting, breathlessness due to weakening of the respiratory and cor- tial muscles.

Poultry:

Inflammation of the peripheral nerves (beri-beri), blue comb, paralysis of leg- and wing muscles, rigidity of neck muscles, poor appetite.

Main overdose symptoms

A major supply may cause vomiting, indisposition and loss of appetite.

Occurence

Feeds of animal origin, particularly milk products, such as skimmed milk, whey powder and yeast as well as leafy vege- tables are all rich in riboflavin whereas tapioca meal, maize and other cereals are poor in the vitamin.

Solubility : Watersoluble

Function

In the metabolism of protein, carbohydrate and fat riboflavin acts as a coenzyme.
It promotes appetite, growth and supports reproduction.

Interaction

Riboflavin as well as Thiamine are constituents of the carbohydrate metabolism.

 

Main deficiency symptoms

The general deficiency symptoms by pigs are depression of gain and growth, loss of appetite, impairment of feed conversion.

Specific symptoms

Pigs:

Chronic diarrhoea, eye disorders, leg dis- orders (muscular stiffness) and weak born piglets.

Poultry:

Poor growth, splitted beak and curled toe disease. Reduced hatchability.

Main overdose symptoms

Experimental overdose have caused vomiting, indisposition and loss of appetite.

Occurrence

Vitamin B6 includes three closely related substances which are being transformed by the organism into the active form by means of for instance niacine and riboflavin.
Grain, cakes crushed oil seed and yeast are particularly rich in pyridoxine, whereas materials of animal origin and tapioca meal are relatively poor in pyridoxine.

Solubility : Watersoluble

Function

Pyridoxine plays a central role in protein metabolism, but is also involved in the metabolism of fat and carbohydrates and in the generation of haemoglobin.
Pyrodoxine is involved in more than fifty enzymatic reactions and is essential to growth, reproduction, the nervous system and the immune system.

Interaction

Niacine and/or riboflavin deficiency causes reduced generation of vitamin B6.
Linatin, which is present in linseed, reduces the availability of pyridoxine.

Main deficiency symptoms

The general symptoms are poor growth, loss of appetite, impairment of feed conversion etc.

Specific symptoms:

Pigs:

Vomiting, diarrhea, lack of coordination, nervous disorders, convulsions, blindness, skin inflammations, slow protein gain.

Poultry:

Nervous disorders, convulsive and fast movements, reduced egg production and lower hatchability.

Main overdose symptoms

Major doses of pyridoxine may lead to fatty liver and convulsions.

Occurrence

Vitamin B12 occurs only in products of animal origin as well as in fermentation products such as dried yeast.
Fish meal and skimmed milk powder and others are rich in vitamin B12.
Vitamin B12 differs from other vitamins by containing cobalt.
No other vitamin contains minerals.

Solubility : Watersoluble

Function

Vitamin B12 is present in various enzymes important to the regular life processes.
Vitamin B12 is indispensable to growth (protein metabolism) and to the formation of red blood cells.

Interaction

Like folic acid vitamin B12 is involved in the transfer of methyl groups (formation of agents).

 

Main deficiency symptoms

Depression of growth, loss of appetite, impairment of feed conversion.

Specific symptoms:

Pigs:

Reproductive disorders, hind leg incoordi- nation, insufficient protein gain, rough hair coat.

Poultry:

Retarded growth, high mortality, poor plumage.

Main overdose symptoms

Major doses of vitamin B12 may lead to loss of appetite and depressed growth.

Occurrence

Dried yeast, green forage and bran as well as protein feedstuffs of animal origin are rich in niacin, whereas maize, rye and milk products are poor sources.
To some extent the pigs are able to convert the amino acid tryptophan into niacin.

Solubility : Water-soluble

Function

Niacin is important to most energy demanding processes and to the normal function of the skin and digestive organs.

Interaction

Increased content of tryptophan may re- duce the requirement for niacin.

Main deficiency symptoms

The general symptoms are reduced weight gain, loss of appetite, impairment of feed conversion.

Specific symptoms :

Pigs:

Skin changes, heavy inflammation of the mucous membranes of the mouth, diarr- hoea, paralysis and convulsions.

Poultry:

Poor feathering, enlarged changes of the joints, perosis, dark inflammation of tongue, loss of appetite and reduced growth. Reduced egg-laying.

Main overdose symptoms:

Overdose symptoms have not been demonstrated.

Occurrence

Biotin is found in almost all feeds, its bio- availability is, however, being questioned.
Additionally, it is known that monogas- trics synthetize a great deal of biotin in the gastro-intestinal tract.
In this case as well, the bioavailability is highly questionable.

Solubility : Watersoluble

Function

Biotin is involved in the synthesis of fatty acids and glucose and is playing an indirect role in protein synthesis as well.
Biotin is essential to hooves as well as to reproduction.
Moreover, biotin is involved in various enzymatic systems of importance to the regular life processes.

Interaction

A biotin supplement is thought to increase the growth promoting effect of copper.
Eczema, hair loss, swelling and/or cracking hooves and reduced reproduction.

Poultry:

Perosis, inflammation on the beak and feet, swollen and nodous eyelids. Unrestless flocks, especially turkeys. Lower hatchability.

Main overdose symptoms   

Overdose symptoms have not been demonstrated.

Main deficiency symptoms:

The general symptoms are reduced weight gain, loss of appetite, impairment of feed conversion.

Occurrence

Folic acid is present in practically all feed materials except tapioca meal.
The most important sources are dry yeast, cereals, soy beans and fish meal.
Apart from folic acid there are various pro- vitamins for folic acids with a lower coef-ficient of utilization.

Solubility : Watersoluble

Function

Folic acid is present in various enzymatic systems and is among other things involved in the production of red blood cells (haemo- globin) resp. of immuno-globulin.

Interaction

Vitamin C is necessary to the stabilization of folic acid.
Like vitamin B12 folic acid is involved in the transfer of methyl groups.
Lack of hair, fading hair colour, anaemia, digestible disorders and diarrhoea, increased receptivity to infections.

Poultry:

Retarded growth, poor plumage, paralysis. Colored plumage show lack of pigmentation. Reduced hatchability.

Main overdose symptoms

Overdose symptoms have not been demonstrated.

Main deficiency symptoms

The general symptoms are reduced weight gain, loss of appetite, impairment of feed conversion.

Occurrence

Folic acid is present in most feed materials except tapioca meal.
The most important sources are milk produ- cts, dry yeast, green meal and oil cakes.

Solubility : Watersoluble

Function

Folic acid supports the function of skin, mucous membrane and hair pigmentation. It is indispensable to the immune defence system and as a co-enzyme.

Interaction : Unknown.

Main deficiency

The general symptoms are loss of appetite, reduced or no weight gain, impairment of feed conversion.

Specific symptoms:

Pigs :

Loss of appetite, slow growth, diarrhea, leg paralysis, reduced protein deposit, ulce- ration of the intestinal tract.

Poultry:

Poor plumage, rugged feathers, nodous and coalesced eyelids, inflammation and scabby lesions of the skin, around the beak and anus.

Main overdose symptoms

Overdose symptoms have not been demonstrated.

Main deficiency symptoms

The general symptoms are reduced weight gain, loss of appetite, impairment of feed conversion.

Occurrence

Choline occurs in all feed materials.
Raw materials, particularly rich in choline, are protein products of animal origin and oil cakes, whereas tapioca meal and maize are poor sources.
Pigs are capable of producing choline on the basis of the amino acids treonine and serine.
An adequate supply of folic acid and vitamin B12 is, however, necessary to the production of choline.
Moreover, choline is synthesized in the body tissue on the basis of methionine.
The metyl donor function of choline is also interchangeable with betaine.

Solubility : Watersoluble

Function

Choline is required for the synthesis of phospholipides which, together with acetylcholine, are vital to the function of the nervous system.
Moreover, choline is necessary to the meta- bolism of protein and fat.

Interaction : See Occurrence

Main deficiency symptoms   

The general symptoms are reduced weight gain, loss of appetite, impairment of feed conversion.

Specific symptoms :

Pigs :

Reduced litters, fatty infiltration of the liver and kidney, uncoordinated movements, slaylegs, poor lactation and increased piglet mortality.

Poultry:

Perosis or slipped tendon. Prevention of fatty liver symptoms on hens.

Main overdose symptoms   

Choline is non-toxic.

Occurrence

Vitamin C occurs only in a few feedstuffs, including milk products green plants and potatoes.
Except for humans, monkeys and gui- nea pigs, all mammals are capable off synthesizing vitamin C, usually in adequate amounts.

Solubility : Watersoluble

Function

Vitamin C is involved in the metabolism of carbrohydrates, proteins and minerals and it also promotes the build-up of connective tissue.
Moreover, vitamin C increases resistance to infections.
During severe heat stress layers and breeders may maintain good production with addition of vitamin C in heat stable form.

Interaction

Vitamin C deficiency leads to poor utilization of folic acid and vitamin B12.

Main deficiency symptoms

A general symptom of vitamin C deficiency is increased susceptibility to infections, eventually causing scorbutus (links aching, loose teeth, reduced wound-healing, brittle- ness of the bones, bleeding in the capillary vessels.)

Main overdose symptoms

Overdose symptoms have not been demonstrated.

Occurrence

Calcium is present in most raw materials.
The most common sources are calcium carbonate, dicalcium phosphate and mo- nocalcium phosphate.

Function

Calcium and phosphorus are the main con- stituents of the skeletal structure.
99 per cent of total body calcium is linked to the skeleton and the teeth.

Calcium is also involved in the coagulation of the blood, transfer of nerval impulses, contraction of muscles, activating of certain enzymatic systems, and it is also important to the strenght of the bones.
For egg laying birds the availability and absorption of calcium from different coarseness of calcium products is important during the long, around 20 hour, process of egg shell formation. Thus a coarse calcium fraction releases calcium more slowly and gives a better shell formation.

Interaction

There is a major interaction between calcium, phosphorus and vitamin D.
A deficiency of one of these agents will cause a reduced absorption of the others.

Main deficiency symptoms

General deficiency symptoms are reduced gain of weight and production, stiffened links, fragile bones and fractures.

Specific symptoms :

Rickets, a deficiency disease, only afflicted to young, growing animals. (Phosphorus and vitamin D deficiency may also cause rickets).
Rickets leads to inadequate mineralization of the bones which soften and swell at the epiphysis.
First signs of rickets are bandy forelegs, stiff links and arched bag due to aching links.

Main overdose symptoms

An overdose of calcium reduces the absorption of phosphorus and zinc, and it probably also effects the utilization of a number of other minerals.
An overdose also causes an undesirable sedimentation of calcium in various parts of the organism (kidneys, blood vessels, heart).

Occurrence

Phosphorus is present in most raw materials.
Common sources are: Dicalciumphosphate and monocalcium phosphate, rock phosphate and bone phosphate.
The phosphorus found in plant material is most often tightly bound in a phytate form. To release the organically bound phosphorus from plant material the use of added phytase is nowadays a common practice. Thus the availability of phosphorus can be increased from 10/30 % up to 50/70 % of the total phosphorous found in plant material.

Function

Phosphorus is most comprehensively invol- ved in the organism and has more known functions than any other mineral.
Besides being involved in the formation of the bone tissue it is also a constituent to various hormone and enzymatic systems and it is essential to energy utilization.

Interaction

There exists a major interaction between calcium, phosphorus and vitamin D.
Deficiency of one of these agents will cause a reduced absorption of the others.

Main deficiency symptoms

General deficiency symptoms are demineralization of the skeleton, fragile bones, fractures and decreased activity.
A more specific deficiency symptom is rickets. (See Calcium)

Main overdose symptoms    

Overdose symptoms have not been demonstrated.
Excess phosphorus, however, interferes with the absorption of calcium and effects fertility and bone formation negatively.

Occurrence

Magnesium is present in most raw materials.
Under normal conditions a supplement of magnesium is thus unnecessary.
Most important inorganic sources are mag- nesium oxide and magnesiumsulphate.

Function

Magnesium is essential to nerve and muscular impulses.
Moreover, magnesium is involved in many different enzymatic systems important to the regular vital process.

Interaction

The absorption of magnesium is inhibited by a high potassium content.
A high content of magnesium inhibits the absorption of calcium and phosphorus.

Main deficiency symptoms

Deficiency symptoms are weak links, laming, paralysis, convulsions and loss of appetite.

Main overdose symptoms

Overdose symptoms are diarrhea and in severe cases muscular paralysis.

Occurrence

Raw materials of vegetable and animal origin are rich in sodium, making them important sources.
All farm animals, however, require a salt supplement to cover the sodium requirement.

Function

Sodium is particularly essential to the maintenance of the fluid balance of the endtire organism.
Sodium is also important to the nerve and muscular impulses, and it is involved in various enzymatic systems, important to regular vital processes.
Moreover, sodium is involved in the formation of bones.

Interaction

Sodium promotes the absorption of amino acids and carbohydrates, because these agents are linked to the sodium movement over the intestine.

Main deficiency symptoms

General deficiency symptoms are loss of appetite, unthriftiness and convulsions.
Cannibalism among poultry may occur.
A special deficiency situation is caused by diarrhea, draining fluid and sodium from the body and into the intestinal tract.
In severe cases, a sodium supplement (as for instance electrolyte treatment) is vital to neutralize the water loss of the body and thus avoid death.

Main overdose symptoms

Overdose symptoms are violent thirst, loss of appetite, convulsions, uncoordinated gait and vomiting.

Occurrence

Raw materials of vegetable and animal origin are rich in chloride, and they are thus important sources.
All farm animals, however, require a sup- plement of chloride.
Main source is salt (NaCl).
Chloride is not a mineral as for instance sodium; physiologically, however, it is an important agent which is functionally clo- sely linked to sodium.

Function

Like sodium, chloride acts mainly in the extracellular fluid, which is essential to the fluid balance of the entire body.
Chloride adjusts the acid/base balance and the pH of the stomach.

Main deficiency symptoms

General deficiency symptoms are loss of appetite, unthriftiness and convulsions.
Cannibalism among poultry may occur.

Main overdose

Overdose symptoms are violent thirst, loss symptoms of appetite, convulsions, uncoordinated gait and vomiting.

Occurrence

Raw materials of animal and vegetable origin are often so rich in potassium that they meet the requirements of the farm animals.
Under tropical conditions, however, a potassium supplement is recommen- ded, as the caloric release is so high that potassium deficiency may occur.
This may also be the case, when the feed (crop) derives from potassium poor soil.

Function

Contrary to sodium and chloride potassium influences the intracellular fluid and like sodium it is involved in the maintenance of the fluid balance of the organism.
Where sodium and chloride are maintaining the constant pH in the extracellular fluid, potassium is maintaining the constant pH in the intracellular fluid.

Interaction

High amounts of potassium may inhibit the absorption of mag

 

Main deficiency symptoms

Deficiency symptoms are loss of appetite, bristly coat and uncoordinated movements. Also heart failure among poultry breeders is seen.

Main overdose symptoms        

Potassium toxicity may lead to heart disorders and in severe cases suspended heart action.

Occurrence

The content of iodine varies in vegetable and animal raw materials.
The content of iodine in plants from coun- tries close to the sea is mostly rather high, whereas plants grown in countries far from the sea have a low content of iodine.
Sources are: Calcium iodate or potassium iodine.

Function

Component of the hormone thyroxin which is important to the regulation of the metabo- lic process.
Thyroxine is excreted by the thyroid gland.

Interaction

It turns out that high contents of iodine may impede the absorption of iron.

Main deficiency symptoms

Inadequate intake of iodine results in struma (goitre enlargement of the thyroid gland).

The symptoms are:

Low body temperature, reduced fertility and brittle hair.

Specific symptoms :

Pigs: Weakborn, hairless piglets.

Poultry: Enlarged thyroid, prolonged hatching time.

 

Main overdose symptoms

Iodine toxicity leads to poor appetite and reduced rate of growth, and in some cases it even interferes with the iron absorption.

Occurrence

Raw materials of animal and vegetable origin are fairly rich in iron and are thus important sources.
Particular sources are iron sulphate and iron fumarate, but there are several varieties with almost the same high extent of absorp- tion.

Function

Being a constituent of haemoglobin, iron plays its most important role, and it is also involved in numerous enzymatic systems - particularly in connection with the oxygen transport.

Interaction

There is an interaction between iron, zinc and manganese, and high amounts of those minerals thus inhibit the iron absorption.

Main deficiency symptoms

General deficiency symptoms are anemia, paleness, unthriftiness and lethargy.
True iron deficiency is mainly present among piglets not given any supplement to sow milk.

Specific symptoms:

Pigs: Paleness (anemia), loss of appetite, depression of gain.
The pigs get breathless easily and die from strain.

Poultry: Anemia among broilers.

Main overdose symptoms

A minor iron overdose will normally lead to constipation.
However, if the vitamin E supply to piglets is not good, an iron injection may cause an iron chock.
By acute iron toxicity the animals develop a rough coat, they shake and suffer from vomiting and convulsions.

Occurrence

In theory the amount of copper in feed may be adequate.
A supplement of copper to the feed is, however, recommended as precaution.
In this case copper sulphate resp. copper oxyde are being used.

Function

Copper combines with various enzymatic systems.
At the same time it facilitates the iron absorption influencing the development of haemoglobin indirectly.

Interaction

A high amount of iron or zinc reduces the utilization of copper.
A high amount of copper may result in iron deficiency, which is reflected in a low concentration of haemoglobin.

Main deficiency symptoms

Copper deficiency as such does not occur very often.
It is mostly recorded when the soil is cop- per deficient, and the animals do not get an extra supplement of copper.

General symptoms of copper deficiency are: Exhaustion and palenes.

Specific symptoms :

Pigs: Weak legs, poor growth, death.

Poultry: Poor growth, death.

Main overdose symptoms

Excess copper is toxic and death may result.

General symptoms are: Nausea, vomiting, diarrhoea.

Serious symptoms are: Increased heart frequency, muscle palpitation and staggering.

Occurrence

Vegetable raw materials contain a varying but rather low amount of easily digestible selenium, whereas animal raw materials have a rather high content of selenium which does not digest easily.

Function

Component of many enzymatic systems important to the normal vital process.
In recent years, however, the influence of selenium on the immunologic system has been recorded.

Interaction

Selenium seems to increase the exploitation of zinc which, on the other hand, reduces the utilization of selenium.
A high amount of copper results in a poorer utilization of selenium.

Main deficiency symptoms

General symptoms of selenium deficiency are:
Poor resistance to infectious diseases, mus- cle degeneration and reduced fertility.

Specific symptoms :

Pigs: Sudden death, damaged liver, pale and unthriving piglets.

Poultry: Muscular dystrophy. Lower hatchability and chick quality

Main overdose symptoms

Selenium is toxic in relatively small quantities.

The symptoms are:

Depression of growth, loss of hair, poor reproduction and mortality.

Occurrence

Both vegetable and animal nutrients contain a considerable quantity of manganese.
A supplement of manganese oxide or manganese sulphate should be given to all livestock.

Function

Component of many enzymes important to the transformation of energy and protein.
Component of the bones as well.

Interaction

Excess calcium and phosphorus interfere with the absorption of manganese.
Low iron absorption increases the manga- nese absorption and vice versa.

Main deficiency symptoms

General symptoms of manganese deficiency are:
Loss of appetite, depression of gain, ab- normal formation of bone and cartilage and reduced fertility.

Specific symptoms :

Pigs: Delayed oestrus in the sow, abnormal sper- matogenesis in males, stiff legs and limping.

Poultry: Manganese deficiency often results in pero- sis (slipped tendons and curled toes).
Perosis may, however, also result from defi- ciency of choline, biotin and folic acid.

Main overdose symptoms   

A large overdose may result in poor appetite and growth as well as iron deficiency.

Occurrence

Both vegetable and animal nutrients con- tain a high amount of zinc thus ensuring a substantial supplement.
All livestock will need extra supplement of zinc.

Function

Component of many enzymes resp. insulin, and it is an essential element in the transformation of energy and protein
Zinc is also important to immunity against diseases, healing, to the sense of taste as well as the olfactory sense.
Zinc has a clear effect on hoofs and feet.

Interaction

A high absorption of calcium influences the utilization of zinc, and there may thus be an increased need for zinc.
High amounts of zinc may reduce the utili- zation of copper and vice versa.

Main deficiency symptoms

General symptoms of zinc deficiency are reduced resistance against infection.

Specific symptoms :

Pigs: Loss of appetite and depressed weight gain, parakeratosis (rough and thickened skin) and diarrhoe.

Poultry: Poor feather development, short and thick legs, depressed weight gain, reduced hatchability.

Main overdose symptoms

Zinc toxicity leads to reduced rate of growth, arthritis, enteritis and diarrhea.

Occurrence

Both vegetable and animal nutrients contain cobalt.

Function

The only know function of cobalt is that of an integral part of vitamin B12.